The art of leadership

From literary works, it has been learnt that the hardest test for leaders is to challenge their character as much as their skills. Leaders are tested, again and again, throughout their careers, and the self-knowledge gained from these tests of character is the heart of leadership.
In other words, the difference between success and failure is not skill, technique, credentials, networking, or even experience. It is clarity about who is one. This self-knowledge is often the critical factor enabling leaders meet their responsibilities and live rewarding and useful lives.
The basic challenges of leaders appear so widely, perhaps universally, because they reflect two fundamental, enduring aspects of leadership. One is the humanity of the leaders - the hopes and fears, traits and instincts of human nature that we all share. The other is the unchanging agenda of leadership, at all times and places: developing a goal, a plan, a purpose or an ideal and working with and through other people to make it real - in a world that is often uncertain, recalcitrant, and sometimes perilous.
Leaders spend much of their time thinking ahead and planning, setting goals and assessing progress. But behind these rational, practical minded efforts, they are pursuing their dreams. Though they are often reluctant to admit it, these men and women have strong images of a good life and a good career, and they deeply want to make these images real. For good and ill, these dreams can shape everything that they do. Hence, a natural first question is what makes a good dream for a leader. The life of Alexander of Macedon provides a valuable answer to this question.
Literature gives us only one window on leadership. Other important perspectives come from historians, journalists, scholars, leader's personal account of their experiences and our own observation. In this background we have to appreciate the myth or reality of the art of leadership.
This article invites readers to learn about leadership and about themselves - by taking serious works of fiction and history as examples and examining them. How does serious fiction help us understand leadership? The answer is simple but extraordinary powerful: serious fiction gives us a unique, inside view of leadership. In real life, most people see the leaders of their sphere of influence only occasionally and get only fleeting glimpses of what these leaders are thinking and feeling.
Let us begin our analysis by randomly picking a few works of literature. The main character of Hermann Hesse's novel "Sidhartha", who is searching for employment, meets Kamaswami, a wise businessman. Kamaswami tells him that the art of meditation and literacy is not helpful in moneymaking. He tells him that in a market-oriented economy, one requires the skills of being street smart. Kamaswami further tells him that the art and practice of moneymaking is a complex game, which requires quick decision-making to seize the moment!
The proposition raised by Kamaswami may be debateable, but the fact is that for a successful life the selection of goals and objects is necessary. "Achilles" a leading character of Homer's "Iliad", raised a question, whether power is more important or the strategy? The annals of history are a witness to the fact that courage and deception both have played an important role to gain a win-win situation. There is an Arabic saying that war is 'just nothing but deception'.
In 'Arms and the Man', Bernard Shaw compares the character of two heroes, one who lays down his life and is no more available either to defend or to cause loss to the enemy, and one who is more wise and temporarily withdraws from the duels to pursue his goals. A pragmatic leader, in Bernard Shaw's view, is more useful.
Homer in his epic poems, 'Iliad' and 'Odyssey' draws distinction among different Greek heroes including Ajax, Achilles, Agamemnon and Odysseus. Odysseus is the one who successfully overcame the challenges and made his way home. A hero's return was always considered an act of honour among the Achaeans.
The moral of the story is: Adapting to change remains a prime factor for success, as in people's perception, their leader is the attribute of success. In the current books on 'leadership', the real subject appears blurred as there exists a vacuum to comprehend the role and character of a leader. This fact calls for a serious review of the art of leadership.
Gabriel Garcia Marques believes that Story telling is a great art. There is no doubt about that. Stories do provide motivation and lessons of wisdom to its listeners or readers. The stories told to children are really interesting. In each story, there is a hero, a hero who is entrusted with a complex task. In order to accomplish the same, the hero is usually advised to undertake travel to unknown lands for gaining control of the mystery solutions to the problem in hand.
These tales are full of surprises and listeners remain in the grip of fear and joy, depending on the twist in the tale. The hero is usually cautioned not to look back, and in case he does so, he would stand seized. It is the mastery of the storyteller which engages the people to listen to the wonders and challenges faced by the hero. The listeners may not comprehend why the hero is being advised not to look back. But the fact is that the said statement is meant to gauge the hero's sincerity to the cause.
But these stories evoke dreams among young people. They start thinking am I dreaming with my eyes wide open. T.E Lawrence - better known as Lawrence of Arabia for his daring role in helping the Arabs fight the Turks during World War I in his memoirs writes:
"All men dream but not equally. Those who dream by night in the dusty recesses of their minds awake in the day to find that it was vanity: but the dreamers of the day are dangerous men, for they may act their dreams with open eyes, to make it possible."
These stories thus show that it is realism - about the world and about one's self that separates dreams from delusions. Willy Loman's Tradgedy tells us which dream one has to abandon. Willy wants to be a great salesman. He wants love and respect from everyone around him and from his family. He longs to be an adventurer, like his father and brother. He envies his brother's wealth. Willy dreams that his son will become worldly, rich, and important. He wants to start a business of his own - to get off the road and leave something to his wife and sons. He loves to build things with his hands. Willy dreams of a business world where personal relationships are central, and not prices and deals. And he longs for a simple life, where he can get back to the good times with Biff, which "used to be so full of light"
In a recent book, 'Who Moved My Cheese,' its author, Spenser Johnson, explains how people fail to familiarise themselves with the changes happening around them and in the process suffer badly.
Setting of goals or objectives is an important element for a leader's consideration in order to lead his followers, or to organise his nation. Following goal setting, a plan for organising logistics, building infrastructure and gathering manpower for the execution of his design or to fulfil his goal is needed. There is a catch in goal setting, that is, one has to opt for an achievable goal, a goal which attracts the community's approval and in the process becomes a popular slogan.
The selection of an opportune moment for the initiation of steps for launching the proposed plan for the achievement of goals is required. Bad timing often leads to unforeseen hurdles, whereas an opportune moment leads to smooth sailing.
A reading of Iliad and 'Arms and the Man' suggests the importance of timings or of an opportune moment. In the first episode, Hector, a Trojan hero, chooses a bad time for an open dual with Achilles, and as a consequence, loses his life. In the second episode, the 'Chocolate Cream Soldier,' its hero waits for a suitable occasion to strike back at the enemy.
The said events tell us that honesty of purpose is an important element for gaining success. The history of the Classic age is full of events where one can observe cause and effect in action, for example take the case of the Greeko-Persian wars. Both nations were plagued by hate for each other. Both suffered in a long series of wars. And ultimately, the Persian Empire was destroyed by the Greeks in the 4th century BC.
For the preparation of the said war, an invasion of Greece (150 years ago) by Darius's son Xerexes (480 B.C) evoked a desire to take revenge. It was alleged that Greek cities were plundered and their temples demolished. The call of war was based on the element of hate for the Persians. Xerexes's invasion of Greece become a focal point for unifying the Greeks to attack Persia. And the call of war against Persians gained wild popularity.
A study of Greeko-Persian wars raises the question what made the Greeks gain an extraordinary level of motivation? For example, it is assumed that Persian were motivated to maintain their hold on Greece and its allied states, particularly north-east Asia, for economic reasons. The Greeks, as is claimed, were motivated by a desire to take revenge. The story does not end here, the actual reasons for attack on Persia were different than simple hate. Economic reasons were paramount as the control of the Mediterranean was a key to control trade between Asia and Europe. In addition, Alexander was motivated by his personal desire to conquer the world, and the Macedonians were interested in loot, booty and plunder.
The study of the personality of the Greek war hero Alexander requires serious attention. Alexander III of Macedon was the son of King Phillip II, who made huge investment in his education and training. It is roughly estimated that the expenses on his education stood as high as 50% of the GDP of the city-state of Athens.
Alexander, in his young age remained aloof and withdrawn. He was fond of reading, and was known as a bookworm. Nevertheless he was trained in the art of warfare, military strategy, history, logic, philosophy and diplomacy. It is claimed, that his tutor Aristotle plagued him with fascist thoughts of supremacy, hate and revenge. He advised him how to conquer people and to colonise them. A young man he led a successful military campaign against an existing world power. It looks like a romantic mystery. It is a story of courage and wisdom.
What motivated Alexander? The character of Achilles, the hero of the war of Troy, who claimed himself to be the son of gods. Alexander also believed that he was the son of Zeus-Ammon. And he was also made to believe to have the blood lineage of Heracles from his paternal side and with Achilles from his maternal side. The deeds of the said heroes were so dear to Alexander that he followed their actions in letter and sprit.
Queen Olympias, Alexander's mother also contributed to make her son a Greek hero. Macedonians politics was a sport of blood. It was a difficult country to be ruled. Olympias was a shrewd woman, and she took all the necessary steps to ensure that his son ascends the Macedonian throne. She arranged for Alexander's early education, and summoned a teacher namely, Leondias from her home state. The teacher introduced Homer's poetry to Alexender.
Homer was a legendary figure in Greece as a great teller of stories, and a known bard singer. Listening to his songs, particularly the tales of 'Iliad' and 'Odyssey', used to evoke heroic feelings amongst the Greeks. Nobody knows who Homer was, or where he was living precisely when the Iliad and Odyssey were written. The poems purport to tell of events that attended or followed a great war fought by bronze armed men from all over Greece, led by the King of Mycenae, against a strong town called Troy, near the south shore of Hellespont at it western entrance.
Alexander motivated his colleagues by living like a common soldier among them. He familiarised himself with their thoughts and ideals. He was very friendly with his team members and participated in all of their activities. These characteristics made his personality popular and romantic.
As a leader, he led his toops by example. During his expeditions in Punjab (modern day Pakistan), a city was not falling, and his troops were showing laziness and lack of exuberance, he all alone climbed on the parapet of the city and jumped inside. He was seriously injured though, yet the city was overtaken by his troops. There is a saying that a king who has to enforce justice has to be strong enough to carry out his will. Leaders are no doubt required to stretch their imagination and to broaden their horizon in order to make good decisions.
The then-Greek environment also played an important role in shaping Alexander's mind. Innovative plays of Greek literature had transformed its myths into dramas with complex human characters, which enabled the people to explore profound moral issues. In a play 'Antigone', Sophoclese argues that a hero's character requires strong belief in the values which are part of environment around him, since the hero's character plays a vital role in shaping the opinion of its followers.
Sophocles' well-known play, "Antigone" is a tragedy. Greeks, perhaps liked the tragedy more than comedy. In the said play, the King of Thebes Creon, his dead nephew Polonaises and his nieces, Antigone and Ismene are the main characters. Creon's nephew is killed in a battle staged against the king. His body is lying unburied at the city centre. The King has ordered that his nephew's body will not be given a burial, and the one who dares to defy the king's order would also be hanged.
The dead Prince's sisters, namely Antigone and Ismene, come to know about these events. Antigone is caught in an inner crisis - a crisis of her soul - because the Greeks believed that a person will not be liberated until his body is buried. It was a challenge to both sisters to bury their dead brother. However, the sisters differed how to confront the issue. They had divergent views. The conversation which took place amongst them is reproduced below: ISMENE: If things are as you say, poor sister, how can I better them? How loose or tie the knot?
-- Antigone: Decide if you will share the work, the deed.
-- Ismene: What kind of danger is there? How far have your thoughts gone?
-- Antigone: Here is this hand. Will you help it to lift the dead man?
-- Ismene: Would you bury him, when it is forbidden the city?
-- Antigone: At least he is my brother - and yours, too, though you deny him. I will not prove false to him.
-- Ismene: You are so headstrong. Creon has forbidden it.
-- Antigone: It is not for him to keep me from my own.
-- Ismene: O God!
-- Consider, sister, how our father died,
-- hated and infamous; how he brought to light his own offenses; how he himself struck out the sight of his two eyes; his own hand was their executioner. Then, mother and wife, two names in one, did shame Violently on her life, with twisted cords. Third, our two brothers, on a single day, poor wretches, themselves worked out their mutual doom.
Each killed the other, hand against brother's hand. Now there are only the two of us, left behind, and see how miserable our end shall be if in the teeth of law we shall transgress against the sovereign's decree and power.
You ought to realise we are only women, not meant in nature to fight against men, and that we are ruled, by those who are stronger, to obedience in this and even more painful matters.
1 do indeed beg those beneath the earth to give me their forgiveness, since force constrains me, that I shall yield in this to the authorities.
Extravagant action is not sensible. Antigone: I would not urge you now; nor if you wanted to act would I be glad to have you with me.
Be as you choose to be; but for myself
I myself will bury him. It will be good to die, so doing. I shall lie by his side, loving him as he loved me; I shall be a criminal - but a religious one. The time in which I must please those that are dead is longer than I must please those of this world. For there I shall lie forever. You, if you like, can cast dishonour on what the sods have honoured.
The story no doubt portrays an important aspect relating to the character of a hero or a leader. It shows how a leader is confronted with competing choices to make decisions.
'Antigone' also reminds of Arthur Miller's play, 'The Death of a Sales Man'. It is a critique of post-industrial society, and the hero is facing 'moral questions'; whether or not failing to provide a good living to his family still gives him a right to live?
Asoka the King of India (269 B.C.) at an important juncture of his rule also stood confronted with a similar choice! After having won the war of Kalinga and having seen the miseries of human beings as an outcome of the war - he stood shocked. In the war where 100,000 people stood killed and 150,000 taken prisoner, a question haunted his mind, whether he still keeps the right to rule? The event forced Asoka to adopt the policy of non-violence, and he became a follower of Buddha. The Dhauli stone records Asoka's profound sorrow and regret at the slaughter of Kalinga as follows :
"When the King. Priyadarsi, the beloved of the gods, had been consecrated eight years, Kalinga was conquered. 150,000 people were thence taken captive, 100,000 were killed, and many more died. Just after the taking of Kalinga the Beloved of the Gods began to follow Righteousness, to love Righteousness, to give instruction in Righteousness. When an unconquered country is conquered, people are killed, they die, or are made captive. That the Beloved of Gods finds very pitiful and grievous"
In the epic of 'Mahabharta', the war hero 'Arjun' is reluctant to face the war. His mentor and Shiva's reincarnation in human form, Krishna tells him that his refusal to lead the war would cost him his status as a hero among his followers. And a wishful thinking that he may retain his status by avoiding the war would amount to living in fools paradise. He also tells him that accepting the challenge with courage is the only way left for him. He further told him that he (Arjun) does not have the power to change his fate, as things are ordained by the God Almighty.
Similarly, Brahspati, a Hindu Brahmin forced Porus to challenge the onslaught of Alexander by reminding him his religious duty to stop an invader. Consequently the war of Hydaspes (Jehlum) took place. The problematic attitude of the Brahmins is reported by a Greek historian Arrian as under:
"The ultra fierce resistance he (Alexander) encountered was due in large part to holy war propaganda spread by the Brahmin priests. Alexander's only answer to ideological opposition was sheer terrorism. Many Brahmins who fell into his hands were hanged as a deterrent. On being asked why he (Brahmin) had instigated a certain leader to revolt, the Brahmin replied: "Because I wanted him to live with honour and die with honour.' Resistance far from being crushed by his strong arm methods, took on a new lease of life. Before 300 B.C. all Macedonian garrisons in the lands of the five rivers had been wiped out."
The hitherto discussed examples also suggest that it is not only the goals, but also decision-making, organising capacity, and disbursement of justice which is expected from a hero or a leader. Particularly justice beyond the realm of organised institutions. This reminds me a character from one of the popular novel "Godfather". The hero of the novel is approached by each victim to an injustice or denied justice by the state institutions and they expect justice from him.
Fundamentally, people expect a concept of divine justice from their heroes. Homer, in Odyssey's book of Shadows portrays glimpses of divine justice. Agamemnon, the commander of the Greek forces at Troy on his return home (after eleven years) alongwith the prize booty Cassandra, the daughter of Piryam (King of Troy), is killed by his wife and her Paramour, Cassandra also met the same fate. These facts portray justice, a divine justice.
In Illiad, there is no glorification of war. The war is seen by men on both sides as a calamity visited on them by fate or gods. However, Homer did cast a difference between men and God, and compares a conflict between natural order and manmade order. The former is free from malice, greed and bruteness while the later gives rise to war, destruction, slavery and injustice. This study nevertheless, shows how leaders take chances, test themselves, and learn from what happens.
(The writer is an advocate and is currently working as an associate with Azim-ud-Din Law Associates.)