Australia at a glance

Culture life Australia’s isolation as an island continent has done much to shape—and inhibit—its culture. The Aboriginal peoples developed their accommodation with the environment over a period of at least 40,000 years, during which time they had little contact with the outside world. When Britain settled New South Wales as a penal colony in 1788, it did so partly because of the continent’s remoteness. Australia’s convict heritage ensured that European perceptions of the environment were often influenced by the sense of exile and alienation. Yet, the distance from Britain—and the isolation it imposed—strengthened rather than weakened ties with it. The ambivalence of the continuing colonial relationship, which only began to be dismantled in the second half of the 20th century, has been a central cultural preoccupation in Australia.

Until World War II, Australian culture was almost exclusively Anglo-Celtic. The Aboriginal population was small and persecuted, and the Commonwealth government’s exclusivist White Australia policy helped to maintain the continent’s striking cultural homogeneity. However, in the second half of the 20th century, immigration rules were relaxed, and large influxes of both immigrants and refugees from eastern Asia, the Middle East, and various continental European countries made their way to Australia, each leaving an indelible imprint on the continent’s culture. Likewise, a revival of Aboriginal identity and positive measures from the government to redress past wrongs, along with a dramatic increase in the Aboriginal population, unleashed a renaissance in the Aboriginal arts.

Daily life and social customs

Australians are proud of their heritage and progress—proud of the fact that a nation of convicts and working-class folks could build a modern egalitarian society in a rough and inhospitable land. They typically disdain the pompous and ostentatious, and they are often characterized as informal and “laid back,” an impression fostered by the typical and now internationally recognized greeting among “mates” and “sheilas”: G’day (Good day). Their tastes in popular fashions and entertainment differ little from those in Europe and North America, and their humour is often characterized as sarcastic, ironic, and self-deprecating.

Drinking and gambling have long been important aspects of Australian popular culture, despite persistent government attempts to regulate and limit them. Beer has traditionally been the drink of choice, but the explosion of Australian wine production has somewhat altered patterns. Since World War II, laws generally have been liberalized in favour of more “civilized” drinking and greater access to gambling, often through government-owned agencies. However, whereas an older generation turned to the pub for socializing, many of the young are likely to seek out the disco or trendy bar or restaurant.

Australian cuisine is a product of international trends and the contributions of its Aboriginal and immigrant communities. Nevertheless, it has been heavily influenced by the country’s Anglo-Celtic heritage, with the traditional British supper still common. Barbecues (“the barbie”) are a quintessential Australian pastime, and meat is ubiquitous. Traditional Aboriginal Outback cuisine consists of such unique foods as kangaroo, wombat, turtle, eel, emu, snake, and witchetty grubs (larvae of the ghost moth). Vegemite, a salty, dark-brown yeast extract, has long been a staple of the Australian diet.

Prior to the 1950s, very few European delicacies had been introduced to Australia, and it was difficult to obtain products such as olive oil and pasta. However, today, Italian food is a significant part of the national culinary culture, and pizza and pasta are among the most popular dishes in Australia. Immigrant traditions and customs also have had a major influence on Australian society and culture. In addition to cuisine, Chinese contributions include medicine and therapy (e.g., acupuncture and Shiatsu massage).

The calendar is well endowed with public holidays, making the long weekend an institution. ANZAC Day (April 25), marking the Australian and New Zealand landing at Gallipoli in 1915, is observed throughout Australia. Australia Day (January 26) celebrates the 1788 arrival of the British First Fleet at Sydney Cove and the proclaiming of Australia as a British possession. The British monarch’s birthday is also celebrated in June (October in Western Australia). In addition, the states have several regional holidays.

Australia hosts many festivals, which often attract a wide international audience. Particularly noteworthy arts events are the Sydney Festival (January), which features concerts and theatre and is accompanied by fireworks displays; the biennial Adelaide Festival of Arts (March); and the Melbourne Festival (October). Aboriginal arts festivals include the Barunga and Cultural Sports Festival (June) and Stompin Ground (October), held in Broome. Sydney’s vibrant Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras, held annually in February, attracts hundreds of thousands of revelers from around the world and is considered the world’s largest celebration of its kind. Chinese cultural celebrations include Chinese New Year, the Dragon Boat Festival, and the Lantern Festival.

The arts

Literature

The original inhabitants of Australia used the oral tradition, including song and dance with gestural storytelling, to entertain, instruct, guide, and reveal spiritual truths, as well as physical geography and the location of life-sustaining resources. (See Australian literature.) This tradition, disrupted and more or less destroyed by the arrival of the British, was replaced by a literature that imitated European models. In the mid-19th century, the Australian landscape, flora, and fauna became the setting for many novels, and, soon after, the colonial experience became a popular subject. Although the bush, or Outback, loomed large in the national consciousness, Australia has been a characteristically urban society, even from its days as a penal colony. Writers as diverse as Robin Boyd, Donald Horne, and Hugh Stretton, as well as the satirist Barry Humphries (Dame Edna Everage), drew attention to the significance of the suburban ethos in Australian culture. Patrick White, Australia’s greatest novelist and winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1973, explored the negative potentialities of a country in the process of defining itself. Contemporary Australian writers such as Thomas Keneally, TheaAstley, David Malouf, Peter Carey, Hal Porter, Janette Turner Hospital, Elizabeth Jolley, and Tim Winton continue to draw an international following.

Performing arts

Dance

Perhaps best-known among Australia’s dance troupes is the world-renowned national company, the Australian Ballet (founded 1962). Like the state-sponsored Queensland Ballet (1960) and West Australian Ballet (1953), it presents both classical and contemporary programs, though unlike them it tours internationally as well as regionally. Also noteworthy are Australian Dance Theatre (1965; contemporary dance), Dance North (1970), One Extra Dance Company (1976), Sydney Dance Company (1979), TasDance (1981), Legs on the Wall (1984), and Buzz Dance Theatre (1985). Bangarra Dance Theatre (1989), which blends the ancient traditions and spirit of the first Australians with the contemporary concerns of indigenous peoples, reached a large international audience when it performed in the opening ceremonies of the 2000 Summer Olympic Games.

Music

Like the other arts in Australia, music there has two distinct traditions: those of the European colonists and those of the indigenous peoples, whose singing and ritual playing of the didjeridu (a drone instrument) reenact the ancient traditions related to a mythological time called the Dreaming, the Aboriginal conception of creation. Contemporary Aboriginal bands (such as Warumpi Band and YothuYindi in the early 21st century) incorporate elements of ancestral rituals. The European-based musical tradition also maintains its vitality in the contemporary scene. Australian opera fans can point to talent ranging from the popular coloratura soprano Dame Nellie Melba to the Australian filmmaker BazLuhrmann’s 21st-century production of Giacomo Puccini’s La Bohème. Traditional symphony orchestras abound,

Australian musicians also have made important contributions to the development of rock music, which has been central to Australian popular culture since the late 1950s, when Americans Bill Haley and His Comets first brought rock and roll to Australia. In 1958 Johnny O’Keefe became the first Australian rock and roll singer to reach the national charts, with his hit “Wild One.” The first Australian rockers to have an impact outside the country were the Easybeats, who formed at an immigrant hostel near Sydney and scored an international hit with “Friday on My Mind” in 1966. Although the Easybeats would struggle to repeat that success, two of the band’s members, George Young and Harry Vanda, would go on to be a prolific songwriting and producing team. Moreover, two of Young’s brothers would later be key contributors to one of Australia’s biggest musical exports, superstar heavy metal band AC/DC. Another set of Australian siblings, the Bee Gees (short for Brothers Gibb), found similar international success in the pop and disco realm.

C/DC had emerged from Australia’s vibrant pub rock scene. Live-music venues thrived throughout the country and produced a number of bands that enjoyed limited foreign success but had huge followings in Australia and other bands that were popular beyond the country’s borders. Among the most notable were Daddy Cool (”Eagle Rock,” 1971), the Masters Apprentices, hard-rocking Billy Thorpe and the Aztecs, soft rockers Air Supply and the Little River Band, blues-based Chain, glam rockers Skyhooks, and Cold Chisel, which was fronted by raspy-voiced everyman Jimmy Barnes and whose 1973 anthem “KheSanh” evocatively conveys the experience of Australian veterans of the Vietnam War. Female vocalists Helen Reddy, Olivia Newton-John, and, later, Kylie Minogue found success by taking their talents abroad.

Central to Australian rock and pop music in the 1970s and beyond was the television music program Countdown, hosted by Ian (“Molly”) Meldrum. By the 1980s a bounty of Australian pop, rock, and alternative rock performers were enjoying worldwide success, including Men at Work (“Down Under,” 1981), Midnight Oil, Crowded House, Hunters and Collectors, the Divinyls, and INXS. Several punk-influenced alternative performers—notably Nick Cave, the Go-Betweens, the Saints, and the Triffids—sought fame in exile, relocating to England, as the Easybeats and the folk-rock group the Seekers (“Georgy Girl,” 1966) had done in the 1960s. The latter-day expatriates found limited commercial success, though they were critics’ darlings and gained cult followings. Throughout the 1990s and on into the 21st century, the list of Australian rock and pop performers who made a significant impact on international audiences grew to include Hoodoo Gurus, Silverchair, Jet, the Sleepy Jackson, Powderfinger, Savage Garden, Wolfmother, the Living End, and Courtney Barnett.

Theatre

For indigenous Australians, the corroboree comes closest to a modern concept of theatre, but this participatory public performance of songs and dances represents much more than entertainment; it is a celebration of Aboriginal mythology and spirituality. Groups such as Bangarra Dance Theatre bring a modern sensibility to bear on the storytelling and ritual essential to Aboriginal culture. European-based contemporary Australian theatre is characterized by its emphasis on smaller, regional theatre groups. Australia’s larger cities offer fringe theatre as well as mainstream and alternative performances. Most of these troupes are committed to presenting the work of Australian playwrights, including Alexander Buzo, Jack Davis, Tim Robertson, and David Williamson.

Visual arts

At the time that Europeans arrived, Australia’s Aboriginal people had long-standing traditions in the visual arts, including rock art (painted or carved rocks), bark painting, sand sculpture, wood sculpture, and body decoration (usually painting and scarification). Some Aboriginal artists subsequently continued these traditions without alteration. Beginning in the late 20th century, others, such as landscape painter Albert Namatjira, successfully pursued Western styles. The art market, art critics, and museums now fully acknowledge the importance and lasting value of Aboriginal artistic traditions. Many Aboriginal communities generate income by selling handcrafted art to tourists and an increasingly eager art market, an economic necessity that has sometimes been troubling given the spiritual and ancestral importance the artists attached to the work. Perhaps the most famous Aboriginal handicraft is the boomerang, on which artists often paint or carve designs that relate to indigenous legends or traditions; a common theme is the Dreaming. They are sometimes used in religious ceremonies and other times clapped together, or pounded on the ground, as accompaniment to songs and chants. Carved and painted emu eggs are also popular.

Throughout most of the 19th century, Australian artists utilized European, particularly British, styles and themes. In the 1880s and ’90s, however, Australian art began to forge its own identity when Tom Roberts, Arthur Streeton, Frederick McCubbin, and others in the so-called Heidelberg school (named for the town outside Melbourne where they often painted) began to depict uniquely Australian subject matter, usually the landscape, in their plein-air canvases. This focus on the Australian landscape continued into the early 20th century; for the most part, Australia was slow to embrace avant-garde European movements such as Cubism or Surrealism. After World War II, painters such as Sir Russell Drysdale and Sir Sidney Nolan were drawn to the dramatic isolation of the Outback. Nolan became known especially for his series of iconic works depicting the notorious 19th-century bushranger (bandit) Ned Kelly. Beginning in the 1960s, painter Fred Williams gained notice for his dense, nearly abstract depictions of the Australian landscape. While artists focused on Australian themes achieved the most renown within Australia, other artists subsequently followed international avant-garde trends—from Pop art to conceptual art to postmodernism.

For the original inhabitants of Australia, architecture traditionally was thought of more as sacred spaces and natural places than as built structures. Aboriginal history and identity was intimately connected to the land and to the ancestral beings that formed the natural world (e.g., rocks and waterholes). For them, mythology, landscape, geography, and ecology were inextricably intertwined to form an organic, self-sustaining whole.

Australian architecture similarly followed European, mostly British, trends in the period after occupation. Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Georgian style became popular, as did an opulent Classical style used for major public buildings; these styles were interpreted literally, although with adjustments such as verandahs that accounted for the Australian climate. After some experimentation with Modernist forms, a heightened interest in regional architecture developed in the period following World War II. In particular, the Sydney school of architects, including Peter Muller, Bruce Rickard, and Richard Norman Johnson, created organic domestic architecture, somewhat reminiscent of the work of American Frank Lloyd Wright, that was in tune with the needs and natural features of particular sites. In 1957 Danish architect JørnUtzon won an international competition to build the Sydney Opera House (completed 1973). The result, an ingenious combination of lightness and monumentality, is the most famous building in Australia. Architects subsequently experimented with a variety of late 20th-century styles such as postmodernism and deconstruction, but no single style has become dominant.

Film

The exhibition and production of motion pictures arrived in Australia at the beginning of the 20th century. The early decades of Australian film were dominated by the development of two genres: the bushranging film, as exemplified by The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), which depicted the life of Ned Kelly; and the “backblocks” farce, a genre that satirized farming families of the era. The most significant film of the silent era was The Sentimental Bloke (1919), a tale of a working-class fellow in search of romance that embraced the slang and culture of Sydney. Film production from 1930 to 1950 was limited mostly to documentaries developed under the guidance of the Commonwealth Film Unit. After World War II feature film production increasingly involved collaborations with British, American, and other foreign companies, and films thought of as “Australian,” such as On the Beach (1959) and The Sundowners (1960), were simply shot in Australia.

Formed in 1970, the Australian Film Development Corporation (AFDC) was a government-funded agency charged with helping the film industry create commercial films for audiences at home and abroad. The success of Stork (1971) gave birth to a rash of “ocker” comedies, a genre that centred on boorish male characters and their antisocial behaviours. The AFDC was replaced by the Australian Film Commission (AFC) in 1975, and a more culturally refined Australian film style emerged. Period films such as Peter Weir’s Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975), Gillian Armstrong’s My Brilliant Career (1980), and Bruce Beresford’s Breaker Morant (1980) were well received by critics and audiences and brought international acclaim. The success of George Miller’s Mad Max (1979) and The Road Warrior (1981), both violent road movies set in the near future, made an international star of Mel Gibson and forced the AFC to abandon the more-staid historical films it seemed to prefer. In 1986 the light comedy Crocodile Dundee, starring popular comedian Paul Hogan as a bushranger displaced to New York City, also became a major worldwide hit. As Australian cinema continued to mature, it produced such notable films as Proof (1991), Muriel’s Wedding (1994), Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (1994), Shine (1996), and Moulin Rouge (2001). A second wave of actors and directors from the Australian filmmaking industry were making Hollywood pictures at the turn of the 21st century, most notably Nicole Kidman (born in Hawaii, U.S.), Russell Crowe (born in New Zealand), Cate Blanchett, Hugh Jackman, and BazLuhrmann.

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